A change of location is a change in the object itself, since spatial properties are intrinsic (similarly with location in time). This he calls the principle of sufficient reason—that there must be a sufficient reason for why things are as they are and not otherwise. Space and time are, rather, ideal. […] This being so, we can say that the nature of an individual substance or of a complete being is to have a notion so complete that it is sufficient to include, and to allow the deduction of, all the predicates of the subject to which that notion is attributed (Discourse on Metaphysics, §8, emphasis added). But Leibniz’s most famous arguments for his theory of space and time stem from the principle of sufficient reason (the principle that everything which happens has, at least in principle, an explanation of why it happened as it did and not otherwise). All of this shifts the meaning of goodness from morality and actions to the quality and phenomena of this universe's existence. Leibniz was one of the great polymaths of the modern world. We are now, finally, ready to get a picture of what Leibniz thinks the universe is really like. It is sometimes convenient to think of space and time as something “out there,” over and above the entities and their relations to each other, but this convenience must not be confused with reality. But this makes no sense, for free choice is not randomness. These are the fundamental existing things, according to Leibniz. All this follows from the complete concept, the predicates of which are connected in one concept. Correlate to the inter-connectedness of predicates in the complete concept is an active power in the monad, which thus always acts out its predicates spontaneously. (iii) A famous scholastic debate concerned the so-called “Sloth Syllogism.” If everything is fated, the argument goes, then whatever action one “does” will or will not happen whether or not one wills it, therefore one need not will anything at all. Once we understood evil and good, it gives us the ability to produce the "greatest possible good" out of all the goodness. Free will is defined as the “power or capacity to choose among alternatives or to act in certain situations independently of natural, social, or divine restraints”. Second, little perceptions explain the acquisition of innumerable minor habits and customs, which make up a huge part of one’s distinctiveness as an individual personality. Nature, Leibniz claims, “never makes leaps” (New Essays on Human Understanding, 56). Leibniz to account for this concluded that “there can be no infinite continuum of worlds” (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Another philosopher who weighs into Leibniz's philosophy is Kant. Thus far, God’s necessity is the only thing mentioned about such a being (there is not much religious or theological about this initially bare metaphysical concept). (Note, however, that this does not assume an origin or beginning in any sense. Correspondingly, the monad is one, simple and indivisible. Leibniz posits a distinction between levels or “spheres” in his account of reality (“Discourse on Metaphysics,” §10). (Similar problems made Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity so much more mathematically complicated than the Special Theory.). If humanity were to be perfect, it would put them on the same level as God, which would destroy the need for grace. (This claim, and its apparent implications, were very effectively and famously satirized by Voltaire in his Candide. Leibniz claims that this apparent paradox is not a real problem. Minds, then, are different from mechanical causes. Only one of these universes can actually exist. The second reductio concerns the violation of the principle of sufficient reason. Rather, one predicate or set of predicates explains another. He envisioned a formal language to reduce reasoning to calculation, and he said that reasonable men, faced with a difficult question of philosophy or policy, would express the question in a precise language and use rules of calculation to carry out precise reasoning. But at the phenomenal level, it is certainly the case that many ideas are represented as arriving through one’s senses. (As it will be shown below, Leibniz goes against the trend of 17th and 18th century thought by reintroducing the Aristotelian and Scholastic notion of a final cause and, indeed, substantial forms.) What, then, sufficiently explains a contingent being such as Caesar? Leibniz claims that one can bypass problems with the intuitive notion of truth, at least for the moment. Space is nothing but the order of co-existent objects; time nothing but the order of successive events. (For more on the philosophical debate of free will, see “Free Will“.
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